Egyptian civilization, one of the world's oldest, developed
in the valley of the Nile over 5,000 years ago. The rival
kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt were united as a centralized
state c.3200 B.C. by a king named Menes, who established his
capital at MEMPHIS. A high culture developed early, and the use
of writing was introduced. During the Old Kingdom (3110-2258
B.C.) Egyptian culture and commerce flourished, and the great
pyramids were built. Its fall introduced a period of anarchy,
which ended c.2000 B.C. with the establishment of the Middle
Kingdom, with its capital at THEBES. Civilization again
flourished until in 1786 B.C. weak rulers allowed the country to
pass under the rule of foreign nomads, known as the HYKSOS. The
Hyksos were expelled c.1570 B.C., and the New Kingdom was
established. During the XVIII dynasty (1570-c.1342 B.C.) ancient
Egyptian civilization reached its zenith; a vast empire was
established and THEBES and MEMPHIS became the political,
commercial, and cultural centers of the world. After the XX
dynasty (1200-1085 B.C.) Egypt came increasingly under foreign
domination, with periods of rule by Libya, Sudan, Assyria, Nubia,
and Persia. Following a brief reestablishment of native power in
405 B.C., Egypt fell without a struggle to ALEXANDER THE GREAT in
332 B.C. After Alexander's death (323 B.C.) Egypt was inherited
by his general, PTOLEMY, who founded the dynasty of Ptolemies and
under whom the new city of ALEXANDRIA became the intellectual and
religious center of the Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies
maintained a formidable empire for more than two centuries until,
weakened by internal dynastic disputes, Egypt fell to Rome in 30
B.C. Christianity was readily accepted in Egypt, which became
part of the Byzantine Empire about A.D. 395. With the Arab
conquest (639-42) Egypt became an integral part of the Muslim
world.
