Egyptian Art and Architecture, the buildings, paintings,
sculpture, and allied arts of ancient Egypt, from prehistoric
times to its conquest by the Romans in 30 BC. Egypt had the
longest unified history of any civilization in the ancient
Mediterranean, extending with few interruptions from about 3000
BC through the 4th century AD. The nature of the country,
fertilized and united by the Nile, and its semi-isolation from
outside cultural influences, produced an artistic style that
changed little during this long period. Art in all its forms was
devoted principally to the service of the king (the pharaoh), who
was considered a god on earth, the state, and religion. From
early times a belief in a life after death dictated that the dead
be buried with material goods to ensure well-being for eternity.
The regular patterns of nature the annual flooding of the Nile,
the cycle of the seasons, and the progress of the sun that
brought day and night were considered gifts of the gods for the
people of Egypt. Egyptian thought, morality, and culture were
rooted in a deep respect for order and balance. Change and
novelty were not considered important in themselves; as a
consequence Egyptian art was based on tradition and was to a
certain extent unvarying. Manners of representation and artistic
forms were worked out early in Egyptian history and were used for
more than 3000 years. To the modern viewer this may seem to have
resulted in a stiff and static art; the basic intention of
Egyptian art, however, was not to create an image of things as
they look to the eye, but rather to represent the essence of a
person or object for eternity.
Predynastic Period
The early prehistoric dwellers on the Nile inhabited the terraces
or plateaus left by the river as it cut its bed. The remains of
their tools and implements show their gradual development from
hunters to settled agriculturists. By 4000 BC the civilization of
Egypt was in its earliest formative stages; the Predynastic
period, which lasted until about 3100 BC, had begun.
Evidence of organized settlements has been found; the art
produced during this time was discovered mainly in their
cemeteries. Objects were put into the grave with the body for the
use of the spirit in the next life, thus preserving a great
quantity of such personal goods as pottery, tools, and weapons.
The pottery is often decorated with painting that reflects the
life of the time. Images of birds and animals common to the land
bordering the Nile abound, and from the latter part of the
Predynastic period come elaborate depictions of many-oared Nile
boats. Copper was used in limited quantities for beads and simple
tools, but most implements were chipped from stone. Cosmetic
palettes made of stone were used for grinding eye paint. Small
sculptures and figurines were either carved from ivory and bone
or modeled in clay.
Old Kingdom
About 3100 BC the country was united under one rule by strong
chieftains from the south. The idea, however, that the country
had two distinct parts Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt
in the north was always remembered. This important event, or one
of the stages leading to it, was commemorated on the carved stone
Palette of King Narmer (circa 3100 BC, Egyptian Museum, Cairo),
on which the king, wearing the crown of the south, is shown
subjugating peoples of the north.
Architecture
The kings of the early dynasties had tombs at Abydos and Saqqara
built in imitation of palaces or shrines. From these tombs have
come large amounts of pottery, stonework, and ivory or bone
carving that attest to a high level of development in Early
Dynastic Egypt. The Egyptian language, written in hieroglyphics,
or picture writing , was in its first stages of evolution.
In the 3rd Dynasty the architect Imhotep built for Zoser (reigned
about 2737-2717 BC) a complex at Saqqara, the burial ground near
the capital of Memphis, that included a stepped pyramid of stone
and a group of shrines and related buildings. Designed to protect
the remains of the king, the great Step Pyramid is the oldest
monumental architecture preserved; it also illustrates one of the
phases toward the development of the true pyramid (see PYRAMIDS).
The architecture of the Old Kingdom the designation used by
historians for the 3rd through the 6th dynasties can be described
as monumental in the sense that native limestone and granite were
used for the construction of large-scale buildings and tombs. Of
the temples built during this period little remains.
The pyramid complex at Giza where the kings of the 4th Dynasty
were buried illustrates the ability of Egyptian architects to
construct monuments that remain wonders of the world. The Great
Pyramid of Khufu originally stood about 146 m (480 ft) high and
contained about 2.3 million blocks with an average weight of 2.5
metric tons each. Many theories have been advanced to explain the
purpose of pyramids; the answer is simple: They were built to
preserve and protect the bodies of the kings for eternity. Each
pyramid had a valley temple, a landing and staging area, and a
pyramid temple or cult chapel where religious rites for the
king's spirit were performed. Around the three major pyramids at
Giza a necropolis (city of the dead) grew up, which contained
mastaba (Arabic mastabah, mud-brick bench) tombs, so called
because of their resemblance to the sloped mud-brick benches in
front of Egyptian houses. The mastabas were for the members of
the royal family, high officials, courtiers, and functionaries.
For the most part these tombs were constructed over shafts that
led to a chamber containing the mummy and the offerings, but some
tombs were cut into the limestone plateau and not constructed
from blocks of stone.
From the tombs at Giza and Saqqara it is clear that the houses
they imitate were arranged on streets in well-planned towns and
cities. Little is known for certain about the domestic
architecture of the Old Kingdom, because houses and even palaces
were built of unbaked mud brick and have not survived. The
temples and tombs, built of stone and constructed for eternity,
provide most of the available information on the customs and
living conditions of the ancient Egyptians.
Sculpture
From the early figures of clay, bone, and ivory in the
Predynastic period, Egyptian sculpture developed quickly. By the
time of Zoser large statues of the rulers were made as resting
places for their spirits. Egyptian sculpture is best described by
the terms cubic and frontal. The block of stone was first made
rectangular; the design of the figure was then drawn on the front
and the two sides. The resulting statue was intended to be seen
mainly from the front. Since it was meant to be a timeless image
intended to convey the essence of the person depicted, there was
no need for it to be composed in the round.
The Egyptian artist was not interested in showing movement as
this term is understood today. Standing figures are not posed as
if they were walking but rather at rest. From the beginning of
the dynastic period human anatomy was understood but given an
ideal form. Images of the kings, in particular, were idealized
and given great dignity. A seated stone figure (circa 2530 BC,
Egyptian Museum) of Khafre, builder of the second largest pyramid
at Giza, embodies all the qualities that make Egyptian royal
sculpture memorable. The king sits on a throne decorated with an
emblem of the united lands, with his hands on his knees, head
erect, and eyes gazing into the distance. A falcon of the god
Horus behind his head symbolizes that he is the living Horus, one
with the gods. All parts of the diorite statue are unified and
balanced, creating a potent image of divine kingship.
A number of forms were developed for the depiction of private
persons. In addition to seated and standing single figures,
paired and group statues of the deceased with family members were
made. Sculpture was of stone, of wood, and (rarely) of metal;
paint was applied to the surface; the eyes were inlaid in other
materials, such as rock crystal, to heighten the lifelike
appearance. Only persons of importance could have such statues
made; a type of sculpture does exist, however, depicting workmen
and women engaged in food preparation and the crafts. These were
made to be included in the tomb to serve the spirit in the next
life.
Sculpture in relief served two important purposes: On the walls
of temples it glorified the king; in the tombs it provided the
spirit with the things it would need through eternity. The
chambered superstructures of private tombs were usually decorated
with scenes of the occupant enjoying and supervising those
activities in which he took part in life. The method of
representing the human figure in two dimensions, either carved in
relief or painted, was again dictated by the desire to preserve
the essence of what was shown. As a result, the typical depiction
combines the head and lower body as seen from the side, with the
eye and upper torso as seen from the front. The most
understandable view of each part was used to create a complete
image. This rule, or canon, was applied to the king and members
of the nobility, but the representation of servants and field
workers was not so rigidly enforced. It is clear that some
complicated actions had to be conveyed with the use of other
views of parts of the body, but the face was rarely shown from
the front. Relief carving was usually painted to complete the
lifelike effect, and many details were added only in paint;
purely painted decoration, however, is seldom found in remains
from the Old Kingdom.
An understanding of much of Egyptian life and customs can be
derived from tomb reliefs. The varieties of food and their
preparation, the methods of caring for flocks and herds, the
trapping of wild animals, the building of boats, and the
processes of the other crafts are All illustrated. Such
activities were arranged on the wall in bands or registers that
can be read as continuing narratives, not as happenings in actual
time but as timeless occupations. The sculptors working in relief
or in the round acted as teams, with different stages of the work
assigned to different members of the group. The artist in ancient
Egypt was content to follow the rules and was proud to be part of
a highly regarded craft.
Decorative Arts
In pottery making the rich decoration of the Predynastic period
was replaced by beautifully made undecorated wares, often with
burnished surfaces, in a wide variety of useful shapes. Pottery
in antiquity served all the purposes for which glass, china,
metal, and plastic are used today; consequently it ranged from
vessels for eating and drinking to large storage containers and
brewer's vats. Jewelry was made of gold and semiprecious stones
in forms incorporating animal and plant designs. Throughout the
history of Egypt the decorative arts were highly dependent on
such motifs. Few examples of actual furniture have been
preserved, but the number of illustrations in tombs give much
information about the design of chairs, beds, stools, and tables.
Generally they were of simple design, incorporating plant forms
and animal feet.
By the end of the 6th Dynasty central rule in Egypt had weakened;
local rulers chose to have themselves buried in their own
provinces rather than near the burial places of the king they
served. From this dynasty comes the oldest surviving metal
statue, an image in copper (circa 2300 BC, Egyptian Museum) of
Pepi I (reigned about 2395-2360 BC). The First Intermediate
period (7th through 10th dynasties) was a time of anarchy and
unrest. A feeble attempt was made to carry on the artistic
traditions of the Old Kingdom, but not until the strong rulers of
Thebes in the south reunited the country did artistic activity
return to a healthy state.
Middle Kingdom
Mentuhotep II, the first ruler of the united Middle Kingdom in
the 11th Dynasty, created a new style in mortuary monuments,
probably inspired by the pyramid complexes of the Old Kingdom. On
the west bank at Thebes he constructed a valley temple connected
by a long causeway to a platformed temple nestled in the rocky
hillside. The walls were decorated with reliefs of the king in
the company of the gods.
Architecture
The architecture of the Middle Kingdom (the time from Mentuhotep
II through the 13th Dynasty) is not well represented by preserved
examples. A small building of Sesostris I (reigned 1962-1928 BC)
of the 12th Dynasty, however, has been recovered from one of the
later pylons of the temple at El-Karnak for which its blocks were
reused as filling material. This small chapel, actually a station
for the procession of a sacred boat, may be used to typify the
style of the time. Essentially cubic in design and constructed on
a strict post-and-lintel system, this small building has a purity
of line and controlled proportions that give it a timeless
character. The piers are decorated in fine raised relief with
images of the king and the gods.
Sculpture
The sculpture of the Middle Kingdom is often described as a new
attempt at realism. The early work of this period directly
imitates Old Kingdom examples in an attempt to restore old
traditions, but the sculpture of the 12th Dynasty exhibits a
fresh interest in reality. Portraits of rulers such as Amenemhet
III and Sesostris III are clearly different from those of Old
Kingdom rulers.
In the 12th Dynasty images of the king are not idealized to the
point of being godlike. The care and concern of high office are
clearly mirrored in the face. The bone structure is indicated
beneath taut surfaces, producing a type of serious realism not
encountered before in Egyptian art. Statues of private persons at
all times tended to imitate the royal style; thus it is natural
that portraits of the nobility in the 12th Dynasty show this same
realism.
Painting
The tombs of the nobility continued to be placed in their own
centers of influence rather than at the royal capital. Although
many of these tombs were decorated in relief carving like the
Aswân tombs in the south, the tombs at Beni Hassan and El Bersha
in Middle Egypt were often decorated only with painting. Those
that remain show the work of provincial artisans who attempted to
adhere to the standards of royal workshops. Some new types and
depictions appear, but the old standards served as a guide to the
subjects and arrangements. Painting can also be illustrated by
the decoration of the rectangular wooden coffins typical of this
period.