Some 60,000 years ago the Nile River began its yearly
inundation of the land along its banks, leaving behind rich
alluvial soil. Areas close to the floodplain became attractive as
a source of food and water. In time, climatic changes, including
periods of aridity, further served to confine human habitation to
the Nile Valley, although this was not always true. From the
Chalcolithic period (the Copper age, beginning about 4000 BC)
into the early part of the Old Kingdom, people apparently used an
extended part of the land. In the 7th millennium BC, Egypt was
environmentally hospitable, and evidence of settlements from that
time has been found in the low desert areas of southern, or
Upper, Egypt; remains of similar occupation have been discovered
at Nubian sites in modern Sudan. Enough pottery has been found in
Upper Egyptian tombs from the 4th millennium BC (in the
Predynastic period) to establish a relative dating sequence. The
Predynastic period, which ends with the unification of Egypt
under one king, is generally subdivided into three parts, each of
which refers to the site at which its archaeological materials
were found: Badarian, Amratian (Naqada I), and Gerzean (Naqada II
and III). Northern sites (from about 5500 BC) have yielded
datable archaeological material of apparent cultural continuity
but no long-term sequences such as those found in the south.
Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period
Archaeological sources indicate the emergence, by the late
Gerzean period (about 3200 BC), of a dominant political force
that was to become the consolidating element in the first united
kingdom of ancient Egypt. The earliest known hieroglyphic writing
dates from this period; soon the names of early rulers began to
appear on monuments. This period began with a 0 Dynasty, which
had as many as 13 rulers, ending with Narmer (about 3100 BC),
followed by the 1st and 2nd dynasties (about 3100-2755 BC), with
at least 17 kings. Some of the earliest massive mortuary
structures (predecessors of the pyramids) were built at Saqqara,
Abydos, and elsewhere during the 1st and 2nd dynasties.
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The Old
Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) spanned five centuries of rule
by the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. The capital was in the
north, at Memphis, and the ruling monarchs held absolute power
over a strongly unified government. Religion played an important
role; in fact, the government had evolved into a theocracy,
wherein the pharaohs, as the rulers were called, were both
absolute monarchs and, possibly, gods on earth.
A Golden Age
The 3rd Dynasty was the first of the Memphite houses, and its
second ruler, Zoser, or Djoser, who reigned about 2737-2717 BC,
emphasized national unity by balancing northern and southern
motifs in his mortuary buildings at Saqqara. His architect,
Imhotep, used stone blocks rather than traditional mud bricks in
the complex there, thus creating the first monumental structure
of stone; its central element, the Step Pyramid, was Zoser's
tomb. In order to deal with affairs of state and to administer
construction projects, the king began to develop an effective
bureaucracy. In general, the 3rd Dynasty marked the beginning of
a golden age of cultural freshness and vigor.
The 4th Dynasty began with King Snefru, whose building projects
included the first true pyramid at Dahshur (south of Saqqara).
Snefru, the earliest warrior king for whom extensive documents
remain, campaigned in Nubia and Libya and was active in the
Sinai. Promoting commerce and mining, he brought prosperity to
the kingdom. Snefru was succeeded by his son Khufu (or Cheops),
who built the Great
Pyramid at Giza. Although little else is known of his reign,
that monument not only attests to his power but also indicates
the administrative skills the bureaucracy had gained. Khufu's son
Redjedef, who reigned about 2613-2603 BC, introduced the solar
element (Ra, or Re) in the royal titulary and the religion.
Khafre (or Chephren), another son of Khufu, succeeded his brother
to the throne and built his mortuary complex at Giza. The
remaining rulers of the dynasty included Menkaure, or Mycerinus,
who reigned about 2578-2553 BC; he is known primarily for the
smallest of the three large pyramids at Giza. Under the 4th
Dynasty, Egyptian civilization reached a peak in its development,
and this high level was generally maintained in the 5th and 6th
dynasties. The splendor of the engineering feats of the pyramids
was approximated in every other field of endeavor, including
architecture, sculpture, painting, navigation, the industrial
arts and sciences, and astronomy; Memphite astronomers first
created a solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Old Kingdom
physicians also displayed a remarkable knowledge of physiology,
surgery, the circulatory system of the body, and antiseptics.
Beginning of Decline
Although the 5th Dynasty maintained prosperity with extensive
foreign trade and military incursions into Asia, signs of
decreasing royal authority became apparent in the swelling of the
bureaucracy and the enhanced power of nonroyal administrators.
The last king of the dynasty, Unas, who reigned about 2428-2407
BC, was buried at Saqqara, with a body of religious spells,
called Pyramid Texts, carved on the walls of his pyramid chamber.
Such texts were also used in the royal tombs of the 6th Dynasty.
Several autobiographical inscriptions of officials under the 6th
Dynasty indicate the decreasing status of the monarchy; records
even indicate a conspiracy against King Pepi I, who reigned about
2395-2360 BC, in which the ruler's wife was involved. It is
believed that during the later years of Pepi II, who reigned
about 2350-2260 BC, power may have been in the hands of his
vizier (chief minister). Central authority over the economy was
also diminished by decrees of exemption from taxes. The nomes
(districts) were rapidly becoming individually powerful, as the
nomarchs"governors of the districts"were beginning to
remain in place rather than being periodically transferred to
different nomes.
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The 7th Dynasty marked the beginning of the First
Intermediate period. As a consequence of internal strife, the
reigns of this and the succeeding 8th Dynasty are rather obscure.
It is clear, however, that both ruled from Memphis and lasted a
total of only 25 years. By this time the powerful nomarchs were
in effective control of their districts, and factions in the
south and north vied for power. Under the Heracleopolitan 9th and
10th dynasties, the nomarchs near Heracleopolis controlled their
area and extended their power north to Memphis (and even into the
delta) and south to Asyût (Lycopolis). The rival southern
nomarchs at Thebes established the 11th Dynasty, controlling the
area from Abydos to Elephantine, near Syene (present-day Aswân).
The early part of this dynasty, the first of the Middle Kingdom,
overlapped the last part of the 10th.
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Without one centralized government, the bureaucracy was no
longer effective, and regional concerns were openly championed.
Egyptian art became more provincial, and no massive mortuary
complexes were built. The religion was also democratized, as
commoners claimed prerogatives previously reserved for royalty
alone. They could, for instance, use spells derived from the
royal Pyramid Texts on the walls of their own coffins or tombs.
Reunification
Although the Middle Kingdom (2134-1784 BC) is generally dated
to include all of the 11th Dynasty, it properly begins with the
reunification of the land by Mentuhotep II, who reigned 2061-2010
BC. The early rulers of the dynasty attempted to extend their
control from Thebes both northward and southward, but it was left
to Mentuhotep to complete the reunification process, sometime
after 2047 BC. Mentuhotep ruled for more than 50 years, and
despite occasional rebellions, he maintained stability and
control over the whole kingdom. He replaced some nomarchs and
limited the power of the nomes, which was still considerable.
Thebes was his capital, and his mortuary temple at Dayr el-Bahri
incorporated both traditional and regional elements; the tomb was
separate from the temple, and there was no pyramid.
The reign of the first 12th Dynasty king, Amenemhet I, was
peaceful. He established a capital near Memphis and, unlike
Mentuhotep, de-emphasized Theban ties in favor of national unity.
Nevertheless, the important Theban god Amon was given prominence
over other deities. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nomes,
rebuilt the bureaucracy, and educated a staff of scribes and
administrators. The literature was predominantly propaganda
designed to reinforce the image of the king as a "good
shepherd" rather than as an inaccessible god. During the
last ten years of his reign, Amenemhet ruled with his son as
co-regent. "The Story of Sinuhe," a literary work of
the period, implies that the king was assassinated.
Amenemhet's successors continued his programs. His son, Sesostris
I, who reigned 1962-1928 BC, built fortresses throughout Nubia
and established trade with foreign lands. He sent governors to
Palestine and Syria and campaigned against the Libyans in the
west. Sesostris II, who reigned 1895-1878 BC, began land
reclamation in El-Fayyum. His successor, Sesostris III, who
reigned 1878-1843 BC, had a canal dug at the first cataract of
the Nile, formed a standing army (which he used in his campaign
against the Nubians), and built new forts on the southern
frontier. He divided the administration into three powerful
geographic units, each controlled by an official under the
vizier, and he no longer recognized provincial nobles. Amenemhet
III continued the policies of his predecessors and extended the
land reform.
A vigorous renaissance of culture took place under the Theban
kings. The architecture, art, and jewelry of the period reveal an
extraordinary delicacy of design, and the time was considered the
golden age of Egyptian literature.
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The rulers of the 13th Dynasty some 50 or more in about 120
years were weaker than their predecessors, although they were
still able to control Nubia and the administration of the central
government. During the latter part of their rule, however, their
power was challenged not only by the rival 14th Dynasty, which
won control over the delta, but also by the Hyksos, who invaded
from western Asia. By the 13th Dynasty there was a large Hyksos
population in northern Egypt. As the central government entered a
period of decline, their presence made possible an influx of
people from coastal Phoenicia and Palestine and the establishment
of a Hyksos dynasty. This marks the beginning of the Second
Intermediate period, a time of turmoil and disunity that lasted
for some 214 years. The Hyksos of the 15th Dynasty ruled from
their capital at Avaris in the eastern delta, maintaining control
over the middle and northern parts of the country. At the same
time, the 16th Dynasty also existed in the delta and Middle
Egypt, but it may have been subservient to the Hyksos. More
independence was exerted in the south by a third contemporaneous
power, the Theban 17th Dynasty, which ruled over the territory
between Elephantine and Abydos. The Theban ruler Kamose, who
reigned about 1576-1570 BC, battled the Hyksos successfully, but
it was his brother, Ahmose I, who finally subdued them, reuniting
Egypt.
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With the unification of the land and the founding of the 18th
Dynasty by Ahmose I, the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BC) began. Ahmose
reestablished the borders, goals, and bureaucracy of the Middle
Kingdom and revived its land-reclamation program. He maintained
the balance of power between the nomarchs and himself with the
support of the military, who were accordingly rewarded. The
importance of women in the New Kingdom is illustrated by the high
titles and position of the royal wives and mothers.
The 18th Dynasty Kings
Once Amenhotep I, who reigned 1551-1524 BC, had full control
over his administration he was co-regent for five years he began
to extend Egypt's boundaries in Nubia and Palestine. A major
builder at El-Karnak, Amenhotep, unlike his predecessors,
separated his tomb from his mortuary temple; he began the custom
of hiding his final resting place. Thutmose I continued the
advances of the new Imperial Age and emphasized the preeminence
of the god Amon. His tomb
was the first in the Valley of the
Kings. Thutmose II, his son by a minor wife, succeeded him,
marrying the royal princess Hatshepsut to strengthen his claim to
the throne. He maintained the accomplishments of his
predecessors. When he died in 1504 BC, his heir, Thutmose III,
was still a child, and so Hatshepsut governed as a regent. Within
a year, she had herself crowned pharaoh, and then mother and son
ruled jointly. When Thutmose III achieved sole rule upon
Hatshepsut's death in 1483 BC, he reconquered Syria and
Palestine, which had broken away under joint rule, and then
continued to expand his empire. His annals in the temple at
El-Karnak chronicle many of his campaigns. Nearly 20 years after
Hatshepsut's death, he ordered the obliteration of her name and
images. Amenhotep II, who reigned 1453-1419 BC, and Thutmose IV
tried to maintain the Asian conquests in the face of growing
threats from the Mitanni and Hittite states, but they found it
necessary to use negotiations as well as force.
Amenhotep III ruled peacefully for nearly four decades, 1386-1349
BC, and art and architecture flourished during his reign. He
maintained the balance of power among Egypt's neighbors by
diplomacy. His son and successor, Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV), was a
religious reformer who fought the power of the Amon priesthood.
Akhenaton abandoned Thebes for a new capital, Akhetaton (see TELL
EL-AMARNA), which was built in honor of Aton, the disk of the sun
on which his monotheistic religion centered.
The Ramesside Period
The religious revolution was abandoned toward the end of his
reign, however, and his son-in-law, Tutankhamen, returned the
capital to Thebes. Tutankhamen is known today chiefly for his
richly furnished tomb, which was found nearly intact in the
Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologists Howard Carter
and Lord Carnarvon in 1922. The 18th Dynasty ended with Horemheb,
who reigned 1321-1293 BC.
The founder of the 19th Dynasty, Ramses I, who reigned 1293-1291
BC, had served his predecessor as vizier and commander of the
army. Reigning only two years, he was succeeded by his son, Seti
I, who reigned 1291-1279 BC; he led campaigns against Syria,
Palestine, the Libyans, and the Hittites. Seti built a sanctuary
at Abydos. Like his father, he favored the delta capital of
Pi-Ramesse (now Qantir). One of his sons, Ramses II, succeeded
him and reigned for nearly 67 years. He was responsible for much
construction at Luxor and El-Karnak, and he built the Ramesseum
(his funerary temple at Thebes), the rock-cut temples at Abu
Simbel, and sanctuaries at Abydos and Memphis. After campaigns
against the Hittites, Ramses made a treaty with them and married
a Hittite princess. His son Merneptah, who reigned 1212-1202 BC,
defeated the Sea Peoples, invaders from the Aegean who swept the
Middle East in the 13th century BC, and records tell of his
desolating Israel. Later rulers had to contend with constant
uprisings by subject peoples of the empire.
The second ruler of the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III, had his
military victories depicted on the walls of his mortuary complex
at Medinet Habu, near Thebes. After his death the New Kingdom
declined, chiefly because of the rising power of the priesthood
of Amon and the army. One high priest and military commander even
had himself depicted in royal regalia.
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The 21st through the 24th dynasties are known as the Third
Intermediate period. Kings ruling from Tanis, in the north, vied
with a line of high priests, to whom they appear to be related,
from Thebes, in the south. The rulers of the 21st Dynasty may
have been partially Libyan in ancestry, and the 22nd Dynasty
began with Libyan chieftains as kings. As the Libyans' rule
deteriorated, several rivals rose to challenge them. In fact the
next two dynasties, the 23rd and 24th, were contemporaneous with
part of the 22nd Dynasty, just as the 25th (Cushite) Dynasty
effectively controlled much of Egypt during the latter years of
the 22nd and the 24th dynasties.
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The 25th through the 31st dynasties ruled Egypt during the
time that has come to be known as the Late Period. The Cushites
ruled from about 767 BC until they were ousted by the Assyrians
in 671 BC. Native rule was reestablished early in the 26th
Dynasty by Psamtik I. A resurgence of cultural achievement,
reminiscent of earlier epochs, reached its height in the 26th
Dynasty. When the last Egyptian king was defeated by Cambyses II
in 525 BC, the country entered a period of Persian domination
under the 27th Dynasty. Egypt reasserted its independence under
the 28th and 29th dynasties, but the 30th Dynasty was the last
one of native rulers. The 31st Dynasty, which is not listed in
Manetho's chronology, represented the second Persian domination.
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The occupation of Egypt by the forces of Alexander the Great
in 332 BC brought an end to Persian rule. Alexander appointed
Cleomenes of Naucratis, a Greek resident in Egypt, and his
Macedonian general, known later as Ptolemy I, to govern the
country. Although two Egyptian governors were named as well,
power was clearly in the hands of Ptolemy, who in a few years
took absolute control of the country.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty
Rivalries with other generals, who carved out sections of
Alexander's empire after his death in 323 BC, occupied much of
Ptolemy's time, but in 305 BC he assumed the royal title and
founded the dynasty that bears his name (see PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY).
Ptolemaic Egypt was one of the great powers of the Hellenistic
world, and at various times it extended its rule over parts of
Syria, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Libya, Phoenicia, and other lands.
Partly because native Egyptian rulers had a reduced role in
affairs of state during the Ptolemaic regime, they periodically
demonstrated their dissatisfaction by open revolts, all of which
were, however, quickly suppressed. In the reign of Ptolemy VI,
Egypt became a protectorate under Antiochus IV of Syria, who
successfully invaded the country in 169 BC. The Romans, however,
forced Antiochus to give up the country, which was then divided
between Ptolemy VI and his younger brother, Ptolemy VII; the
latter took full control upon the death of his brother in 145 BC.
The succeeding Ptolemies preserved the wealth and status of Egypt
while continually losing territory to the Romans. Cleopatra VII
was the last great ruler of the Ptolemaic line. In an attempt to
maintain Egyptian power she aligned herself with Julius Caesar
and, later, Mark Antony, but these moves only postponed the end.
After her forces were defeated by Roman legions under Octavian
(later Emperor Augustus), Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 BC.
Roman and Byzantine Rule
For nearly seven centuries after the death of Cleopatra, the
Romans controlled Egypt (except for a short time in the 3rd
century AD, when it came under the power of Queen Zenobia of
Palmyra). They treated Egypt as a valuable source of wealth and
profit and were dependent on its supply of grain to feed their
multitudes. Roman Egypt was governed by a prefect, whose duties
as commander of the army and official judge were similar to those
of the pharaohs of the past. The office, therefore, was one with
which the native population was familiar. Because of the immense
power of the prefects, however, their functions were eventually
divided under Emperor Justinian, who in the 6th century AD put
the army under a separate commander, directly responsible to him.
Egypt in the Roman period was relatively peaceful; its southern
boundary at Aswân was only rarely attacked by the Ethiopians.
Egypt's population had become Hellenized under the Ptolemies, and
it included large minorities of Greeks and Jews, as well as other
peoples from Asia Minor. The mixture of the cultures did not lead
to a homogeneous society, and civil strife was frequent. In 212,
however, Emperor Caracalla granted the entire population
citizenship in the Roman Empire.
Alexandria, the port city on the Mediterranean founded by
Alexander the Great, remained the capital as it had been under
the Ptolemies. One of the great metropolises of the Roman Empire,
it was the center of a thriving commerce between India and Arabia
and the Mediterranean countries. It was the home of the great
Alexandrian library and museum and had a population of some
300,000 (excluding slaves).
Egypt became an economic mainstay of the Roman Empire not only
because of its annual harvest of grain but also for its glass,
metal, and other manufactured products. In addition, the trade
brought in spices, perfumes, precious stones, and rare metals
from the Red Sea ports. Once part of the empire, Egypt was
subject to a variety of taxes as well. In order to control the
people and placate the powerful priesthood, the Roman emperors
protected the ancient religion, completed or embellished temples
begun under the Ptolemies, and had their own names inscribed on
them as pharaohs; the cartouches of several can be found at Isna,
Kawn Umbu, Dandara, and Philae. The Egyptian cults of Isis and
Serapis spread throughout the ancient world. Egypt was also an
important center of early Christendom and the first one of
Christian monasticism. Its Coptic or Monophysite church separated
from mainstream Christianity in the 5th century.
During the 7th century the power of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine)
Empire was challenged by the Sassanids of Persia, who invaded
Egypt in 616. They were expelled again in 628, but soon after, in
642, the country fell to the Arabs, who brought with them a new
religion, Islam, and began a new chapter of Egyptian history.
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This Page Created By:
Anthony C. DiPaolo, M.S.
tony19@ix.netcom.com
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Revised: November 12, 2009.
Copyright © 1997 by Anthony C. DiPaolo, M.S. / Osiris Web
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